Journal of Childhood & Developmental Disorders

Introduction

The human brain undergoes remarkable development in the early years of life, setting the foundation for cognitive, emotional, and social functioning. Recent advancements in neuroscience have provided insights into infants' neural responses, allowing us to explore the intricacies of their developing brains. This article delves into the fascinating world of infants' neural responses, highlighting the key stages of early brain development and the implications for their overall growth and learning.

Postnatal maternal anxiety is common (estimates as high as 40% prevalence) and is associated with altered mother–infant interactions (e.g., reduced maternal emotional expression and engagement). Neural circuitry supporting infants’ face and emotion processing develops in their first year. Thus, early exposure to maternal anxiety may impact infants’ developing understanding of emotional displays. We examine whether maternal anxiety is associated with individual differences in typically developing infants’ neural responses to emotional faces.

One hundred and forty two mother–infant dyads were assessed when infants were 5, 7, or 12 months old. Infants’ electroencephalographic (EEG) data were recorded while passively viewing female happy, fearful, and angry faces. Three event-related potential (ERP) components, each linked to face and emotion processing, were evaluated: NC, N290, and P400. Infant ERP amplitude was related to concurrent maternal-report anxiety assessed with the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Trait form).

Postnatal maternal anxiety is related to infants’ neural processing of emotional expressions. Infants of mothers endorsing high trait anxiety may need additional attentional resources to process happy and fearful faces (expressions less likely experienced in mother–infant interactions). Future research should investigate mechanisms underlying this association, given possibilities include experiential, genetic, and prenatal factors.

Early Brain Development

During the prenatal period, the brain rapidly develops its basic structure. Neurons, the fundamental building blocks of the brain, form connections called synapses. Synaptic connections multiply rapidly, creating a complex neural network. This process, known as synaptogenesis, allows for the transmission of electrical signals and the development of neural circuits.

As the brain continues to develop after birth, a process called synaptic pruning takes place. Unused synapses are eliminated, leading to more efficient neural pathways. This pruning process helps shape the neural architecture and enhances neural communication. Simultaneously, myelination occurs, which involves the formation of a protective sheath around nerve fibers. Myelin facilitates faster and more efficient transmission of signals between brain regions.

Infants Neural Responses

Infants' brains are highly attuned to sensory input from the environment. Studies using techniques such as electroencephalography (EEG) have revealed that even newborns show neural responses to various stimuli, including sounds, light, touch, and faces. These early neural responses reflect the brain's ability to detect and process sensory information, forming the basis for sensory perception and learning.

Infants exhibit neural responses that reflect their early social cognition and emotional processing. For instance, research using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has shown that when presented with faces expressing different emotions, infants' brains demonstrate distinct activation patterns in regions associated with emotion processing and social perception. These findings indicate that even in the early months of life, infants are sensitive to social and emotional cues.

Infants' neural responses also provide valuable insights into their language development. Studies using EEG have revealed that infants exhibit neural patterns associated with speech processing as early as a few months old. These patterns indicate that infants are already differentiating between speech sounds and show sensitivity to language-specific phonetic distinctions. These early neural responses lay the groundwork for future language acquisition and development.

The early years of life are characterized by periods of heightened brain plasticity, often referred to as sensitive periods. During these periods, the brain is particularly receptive to environmental input, allowing for optimal learning and skill acquisition. Understanding infants' neural responses can inform the design of early intervention programs, taking advantage of these sensitive periods to enhance cognitive, social, and emotional development.

Examining infants' neural responses can aid in the early identification of developmental disorders. Certain patterns or deviations in neural responses may serve as markers for potential difficulties or delays in cognitive, social, or emotional development. Early detection allows for timely intervention and support, increasing the chances of positive outcomes for children at risk of developmental disorders.

Knowledge of infants' neural responses underscores the importance of providing enriched environments that stimulate brain development. Sensory-rich and socially engaging experiences help shape the developing brain, fostering neural connections and strengthening neural networks. Providing infants with a supportive and stimulating environment can promote healthy brain development and optimize their learning potential.

Infants' neural responses offer a window into the mesmerizing world of early brain development. From the formation of neural connections to the processing of sensory information, social cognition, and language development, infants' brains rapidly evolve and adapt in response to their experiences. Understanding these neural responses allows us to recognize the significance of early experiences in shaping a child's cognitive, emotional, and social development.

By delving into the intricacies of infants' neural responses, we can design effective interventions, identify potential developmental concerns, and provide nurturing environments that optimize brain development. As we continue to uncover the wonders of infants' neural responses, we enhance our ability to support and nurture the developing minds of the youngest members of society, setting the stage for a bright and promising future.

Response to child ADHD treatment is also influenced by parental symptoms of ADHD or depression which are more frequent among parents with a child with ADHD. Parental psychopathology is associated with more negative (e.g. harsh, lax, disengaged) and less positive parenting, more severe child psychopathology, persistence of child ADHD symptoms into adulthood and lower child’s quality of life. Positive parenting (i.e. emotional support, intellectual stimulation, and affection) and family climate (i.e. active recreational organisation and cohesion) are protective factors for children with ADHD symptoms. A meta-analysis of RCTs on behavioural interventions for child ADHD, including parent training, found medium positive effects on parenting quality, small improvements in parenting self-concept, but no effect on depression/anxiety or well-being of parents.